The Wehrmacht was the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It played a central role in the aggressive military expansion that characterized World War II. Comprising the Army (Heer), the Navy (Kriegsmarine), and the Air Force (Luftwaffe), the Wehrmacht was known for its rapid and highly coordinated campaigns during the early years of the war. The rise and activities of the Wehrmacht are deeply tied to Germany’s military tradition, the ambitions of Adolf Hitler, and the broader mechanisms of state terror and total war.
Formation and Structure of the Wehrmacht
Origins and Expansion
The Wehrmacht officially replaced the Reichswehr in 1935 following Adolf Hitler’s decision to defy the Treaty of Versailles, which had restricted Germany’s military capabilities after World War I. The Nazi regime aimed to rebuild and reorganize Germany’s military might, and the Wehrmacht became a symbol of that resurgence. With its structure divided into three main branches, the Wehrmacht rapidly grew into one of the most formidable military machines in Europe.
- Heer (Army): The largest and most significant branch, responsible for land operations across Europe and beyond.
- Kriegsmarine (Navy): Tasked with controlling naval warfare, especially in the Atlantic and the North Sea.
- Luftwaffe (Air Force): A crucial component of the Blitzkrieg strategy, it focused on achieving air superiority and supporting ground forces.
Command and Control
The Wehrmacht operated under a high command structure known as the OKW (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht), which coordinated the actions of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. Despite being under nominal control of the OKW, each branch had significant autonomy, especially the Luftwaffe under Hermann Göring. Hitler himself increasingly took direct control of military decisions as the war progressed, often with disastrous results.
Military Strategy and Tactics
The Blitzkrieg Doctrine
One of the Wehrmacht’s most recognized innovations was the Blitzkrieg, or lightning war. This strategy emphasized speed, surprise, and the integration of air and ground forces to quickly overwhelm enemies. It was first demonstrated during the invasion of Poland in 1939 and later used effectively in campaigns against France, Belgium, and the Soviet Union.
Weapons and Technology
The Wehrmacht utilized advanced military technology and equipment for its time. This included tanks like the Panzer IV, aircraft such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109, and sophisticated artillery. German military engineers and scientists contributed to innovations that made the Wehrmacht temporarily dominant on the battlefield.
Role in World War II
Early Victories and Occupation
The Wehrmacht quickly earned a reputation for efficiency and ruthlessness. It led successful invasions of Poland (1939), France and the Low Countries (1940), and initial advances into the Soviet Union during Operation Barbarossa (1941). These campaigns resulted in large-scale occupations and the subjugation of civilian populations.
Turning Points and Decline
Despite early success, the Wehrmacht began to suffer defeats by 1943. The Battle of Stalingrad marked a significant turning point as entire German armies were destroyed. The Allied landings in Normandy in 1944 further pressured the Wehrmacht from the west, while the Red Army advanced from the east. Poor logistics, overstretched supply lines, and Hitler’s micromanagement contributed to its eventual collapse in 1945.
Connection to War Crimes
The Myth of the Clean Wehrmacht
For decades after the war, a narrative emerged portraying the Wehrmacht as an apolitical, professional force distinct from the SS and other Nazi institutions. This ‘clean Wehrmacht’ myth suggested that regular soldiers were not involved in war crimes. However, extensive historical research has debunked this view.
Participation in Atrocities
Evidence shows that the Wehrmacht was deeply involved in numerous war crimes, particularly on the Eastern Front. Soldiers participated in mass shootings, the starvation of prisoners of war, and the destruction of entire villages. The Wehrmacht also provided logistical and military support to the SS in the execution of the Holocaust and anti-partisan campaigns.
Legacy and Historical Debate
Post-War Trials and Accountability
After the war, the Nuremberg Trials addressed some aspects of the Wehrmacht’s conduct, but few high-ranking officers were tried compared to the SS and Nazi leadership. Many Wehrmacht veterans returned to civilian life and some even served in the military of West Germany (Bundeswehr) during the Cold War era.
Impact on Modern German Memory
Germany has since undergone significant efforts to confront its past. Public exhibitions, historical scholarship, and education have brought to light the Wehrmacht’s role in crimes and its function within the Nazi war machine. Debates continue over memorialization, military tradition, and the ethical lessons learned from the Wehrmacht’s history.
Famous Wehrmacht Commanders
Prominent Figures
Several Wehrmacht commanders became well-known for their military prowess, though their reputations have been re-evaluated in light of historical evidence.
- Erwin Rommel: Known as the Desert Fox, Rommel led the Afrika Korps and was respected for his tactics. He was later linked to the failed plot to assassinate Hitler in 1944 and forced to commit suicide.
- Wilhelm Keitel: Chief of the OKW and one of Hitler’s closest military advisers, Keitel was found guilty of war crimes and executed after the Nuremberg Trials.
- Gerd von Rundstedt: A senior field marshal involved in numerous campaigns, he was considered a capable but conservative military leader.
Understanding the Wehrmacht in Context
The Wehrmacht was more than just a military organization it was an instrument of Nazi aggression, occupation, and destruction. While its early battlefield successes made it legendary in military history, its complicity in war crimes and participation in a genocidal regime have permanently stained its legacy. Understanding who the Wehrmacht were requires acknowledging both their military innovations and their deep involvement in some of the worst atrocities of the 20th century.
As modern societies strive to learn from history, the story of the Wehrmacht serves as a reminder of the dangers posed by uncritical obedience, blind nationalism, and the fusion of military power with totalitarian ideology. The legacy of the Wehrmacht continues to be studied not only to understand World War II, but also to reflect on the broader implications of war, responsibility, and remembrance.