José Millán-Astray y Terreros was a controversial and deeply influential figure in Spanish military history during the first half of the 20th century. Known for his founding role in the Spanish Legion and his dramatic personality, Millán-Astray was both celebrated and criticized for his unwavering nationalism and militarism. His life intersected with the Spanish Civil War, Francisco Franco’s rise, and the cultural tensions that defined Spain in that era. Exploring his biography provides insight into the formation of modern Spanish identity and the military’s place in it.
Early Life and Military Education
Background and Upbringing
José Millán-Astray was born on July 5, 1879, in A Coruña, Galicia, Spain. He came from a well-educated and middle-class family. His father, a lawyer, instilled in him a sense of discipline and duty early in life. From a young age, Millán-Astray was fascinated by military heroism and Spain’s imperial legacy.
Formal Training
He enrolled in the Academia de InfanterÃa de Toledo (Infantry Academy of Toledo) and later attended military academies in France. His military education shaped his ideological commitment to traditional values such as honor, sacrifice, and service to the Spanish homeland. These ideals became central to his later work and legacy.
Founding of the Spanish Legion
Inspiration and Objectives
One of Millán-Astray’s most enduring contributions to Spanish history was the founding of the Spanish Legion in 1920, originally named the Tercio de Extranjeros (Foreign Legion). Inspired by the French Foreign Legion, he envisioned a professional, elite fighting force that could restore discipline and honor to the Spanish military.
Collaboration with Francisco Franco
Millán-Astray appointed Francisco Franco, who later became Spain’s dictator, as one of the first officers in the Legion. Their collaboration began a long-standing alliance that would influence the political direction of Spain for decades. Under Millán-Astray’s leadership, the Legion was known for its brutal efficiency, strict discipline, and willingness to engage in bloody colonial campaigns, particularly in North Africa.
Military Ideology and Public Persona
Philosophy of War
Millán-Astray championed a militaristic worldview, glorifying death in battle and self-sacrifice for Spain. His motto for the Legion, ¡Viva la Muerte! (‘Long Live Death!’), reflected a romantic yet harsh view of warfare and national duty. He encouraged soldiers to embrace suffering and view combat as a noble pursuit.
Personal Injuries and Symbolism
During his military service, Millán-Astray suffered severe injuries. He lost an arm in battle and was also blinded in one eye. Rather than retreating from public life, he embraced his wounds as symbols of bravery and continued to appear publicly, often in full uniform. His striking appearance contributed to his mythic reputation.
Role During the Spanish Civil War
Support for Nationalist Forces
When the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, Millán-Astray aligned firmly with the Nationalist faction led by Franco. He used his popularity and influence to promote the Nationalist cause, delivering radio broadcasts and organizing propaganda campaigns. He strongly opposed the Republicans and liberal intellectuals, seeing them as enemies of the traditional Spain he cherished.
Clash with Miguel de Unamuno
One of the most iconic moments of Millán-Astray’s life occurred in October 1936 at the University of Salamanca. During a tense public event, he reportedly shouted ¡Muera la inteligencia! (Death to intelligence!) in response to the famous philosopher Miguel de Unamuno, who had criticized the violence of the Civil War and the suppression of free thought. Though the details of this exchange are debated, it has come to symbolize the cultural divide between militarist nationalism and intellectual freedom.
Later Years and Death
Marginalization by Franco
Despite his early alliance with Franco, Millán-Astray was eventually sidelined. Franco, seeking to consolidate control and present a more pragmatic image to international audiences, found Millán-Astray’s theatrical and extremist behavior politically inconvenient. By the late 1930s, Millán-Astray held few formal positions of power.
Death and Burial
José Millán-Astray died on January 1, 1954, in Madrid. Though no longer a key figure by then, he remained a symbol of the fervent nationalism and military idealism that defined the Nationalist movement. He was buried with military honors, and his legacy continued to stir debate within Spain.
Legacy and Controversy
Symbols and Monuments
In post-Civil War Spain, Millán-Astray was honored in military circles. Streets, plazas, and buildings were named after him. However, in democratic Spain, efforts have been made to remove such honors as part of the wider push to reckon with the country’s authoritarian past. The Historical Memory Law has led to a reevaluation of public commemorations of figures associated with Francoist repression.
Historical Assessments
Historians remain divided on Millán-Astray’s legacy. Some see him as a dedicated soldier who believed in sacrifice and patriotism. Others view him as a dangerous extremist who helped promote a brutal authoritarian regime. His famous encounter with Unamuno, real or embellished, stands as a warning against anti-intellectualism and militarism gone unchecked.
- Born: July 5, 1879
- Died: January 1, 1954
- Notable Role: Founder of the Spanish Legion
- Known For: Militaristic nationalism, Civil War propaganda, clash with intellectuals
José Millán-Astray y Terreros remains one of Spain’s most controversial 20th-century military leaders. As the founder of the Spanish Legion and a prominent nationalist figure during the Spanish Civil War, his life was marked by both valor and conflict. His physical scars mirrored the ideological divisions of Spain during his time between war and peace, tradition and progress, repression and expression. In examining his story, we also reflect on the broader struggles of modern Spain as it continues to confront its past and shape its democratic future.